§16§From Darfur to the Rwandan genocide, journalists, policymakers, and scholars have blamed armed conflicts in Africa on ancient hatreds or competition for resources. Here, Tsega Etefa compares three such cases-the Darfur conflict between Arabs and non-Arabs, the Gumuz and Oromo clashes in Western Oromia, and the Oromo-Pokomo conflict in the Tana Delta-in order to offer a fuller picture of how ethnic violence in Africa begins. Diverse communities in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya alike have long histories of peacefully sharing resources, intermarrying, and resolving disputes. As he argues, ethnic conflicts are fundamentally political conflicts, driven by non-inclusive political systems, the monopolization of state resources, and the manipulation of ethnicity for political gain, coupled with the lack of democratic mechanisms for redressing grievances.§§ §04§1. Ethnicity as a Tool: The Root Causes of Ethnic Conflicts in Africa: A Critical Introduction.- 2. From Inclusion to Exclusion: Marginalization across Nations.- 3. Precursors to Violence: Neglect and Politics in Darfur, Oromia, and the Tana Delta.- 4. Across Borders: Local Governance and Regional Implications.- 5. When Neighbors Become Killers: From Murahaleen to Janjaweed in Darfur.- 6. From Jebel Marra to Blue Nile: Violence in Darfur and Oromia.- 7. Neither Malkas nor Shambas: Oromo and Pokomo Conflict, 1991-2013.- 8. Tolerance under Siege: African Principles of Conflict Resolution.- 9. Managing Conflict in Africa: Workable Solutions and Recommendations.§§ §02§Tsega Etefa is Associate Professor of History and Africana and Latin American Studies at Colgate University, New York, USA.
